Understanding+Writer+Diversity

Understanding Writer Diversity

Non-Native Speakers of English Learning Disabled Students Working with Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Students
 * General Information
 * Basic Advice
 * Specific Grammar Techniques
 * Common Writing Problems among ESL Students
 * The Differences in Characteristics of Good Academic Writing between the U.S. and Other Cultures/Languages
 * When an ESL Student Needs Grammar Assistance

**Non-Native Speakers of English (ESL/EFL)**
Non-native writers are often one of the biggest challenges for a new consultant—or any consultant! They often present more obvious LOC issues that seem very daunting. You may not feel qualified to work with these writers, but rest assured, you’ll do fine.

It’s important to remember that while these writers have unique challenges, basic guidelines still apply. Although the most frequent request you will hear from NNS is “grammar help,” you can (and should) still address HOCs.

**General Information**
There are two types of nonnative speakers (NNS) that you may encounter at the Writing Center: refugees/immigrants (ESL students) and international students (EFL students). The former are either permanent United States residents or United States citizens; they may have been in this country for several years, or they may have recently arrived. International students usually are in the United States just long enough to get their degrees, after which most of them return to their home countries.  Most NNS have studied English grammar for years, although often not composition. This means that their grammar skills were learned mostly on a sentence level and not on a discourse level, which contributes to many writing problems. Many of the English teachers they had before arriving in the United States were not native speakers of English; language classes were often quite large and were run mostly by the book, which usually puts emphasis on grammar and vocabulary. Practice in speaking was probably neglected in their English course, so poor pronunciation is not a good measure of overall language skills or of analytic skills. Many NNS are often among the brightest students in their countries.

Many writing problems NNS have are the same as problems native speakers (NS) have: keeping longer sentences grammatical, avoiding run-ons, using adequate support, and using a formal writing style. Of course, NNS have additional grammar and vocabulary problems that NS often does not have, but it is good not to lose sight that many of their problems are common to NS. For example, the necessity to paraphrase may be an unfamiliar concept to NNS because they are often taught to copy good writing models in their own writing traditions.

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**Basic Advice**
First, ask NNS what they would like to help with. Try to have them be as specific as possible. Ask to look at the description of the assignment or at what their teacher has written on a draft. Devise a list of common ESL/EFL problems to show them if they cannot zero in on what they would like help with. Explain what you can expect to accomplish in the given time; they can schedule another appointment for more help.

If they want help with grammar, explain that you do not proofread (you may have to explain what that means), but you will help locate and work on some grammar problems with them. For instance, if they need help with prepositions, ask them to underline all the prepositions in a given paragraph. Then, go through each one with them, helping them to self-correct. Or, you might go through a paragraph and circle all the

prepositions (or places where there should be one) and help them to self-correct. You may need a reference book for grammar explanations. It is best to focus on one thing at a time since it is easy to get sidetracked.

Many NNS think grammar and vocabulary are their only problems. It is very heartening for them to also get advice on rhetorical issues, like organization and coherence markers – things they have more control over that can make a great difference in their papers.

Remember to give NNS lots of response time. If you find it helpful, ask them to read their paragraphs aloud. This can help them get a sense of their sentence variety. If they are out of breath before the end of the sentence, it is probably too long. If all their sentences are approximately the same length and structure, this should become apparent as they read, as should over-repetition of vocabulary.

 Encourage NNS to keep a notebook of their most common errors, so they can keep focused on them and feel a sense of accomplishment as they improve in future assignments.

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**//Specific Grammar Troublespots//**
Many grammar problems are easy for NNS to correct if these mistakes are pointed out to them. Common and easily corrected grammatical errors are listed below.

· **//Subject-Verb Agreement//** o All verbs must agree in number with their subject (e.g. “I like dogs”). First, ask NNS to find the verb and then its subject. · **//Pronoun Agreement//** o All pronouns must agree in number and gender with their antecedent (e.g. “Tara lost her comb”). Ask NNS to find the pronoun’s antecedent. · **//Subject Deletion//** o All verbs in English must have an overt subject (e.g. we do not say “Is good today”). Ask NNS to find the verb then add an appropriate subject. (This problem is especially common for Chinese-, Spanish-, and Italian-speaking students. · **//Article Usage//** This is usually seen as the most serious problem by both NNS and their teachers. Why? o Articles per se do not exist in many of their languages. For example, most Asian, African, and Slavic languages do not use articles. o Articles may exist, but the usage is different. For example, Romance languages use the definite article more; Arabic languages add the definite article to an adjective that agrees with a definite noun. o Articles are usually taught on a sentence level rather than on a discourse level, even though they are often best analyzed on a discourse level. o Explanations in books are often confusing and inadequate. o The rules for article usage are complex, involving several discussions. As a result, article usage will seem very idiosyncratic; many NS will not agree on usage. o **//Solution://** Article usage is always determined by the noun that follows, so first, have the student underline all the nouns in a given paragraph. Then, the student has to determine several aspects of the noun’s form and meaning. Have students ask questions. Is the noun count or noncount (e.g. “pencil” versus “milk”)? Is the reference to the noun specific or nonspecific? Does the noun fall in the list of idiosyncratic uses? These can be answered by reference to the following books:

 //Grammar Troublespots: An Editing Guide for Students// by Anne Raimes

//The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course// by Marianne Celce-Murcia And Diane Larsen-Freeman

//Tips provided by Dr. Tina Biava to Dr. Margaret Weaver//

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**Common Writing Problems among ESL Students**
The following information was provided by the English Language Institute:


 * ** Problem ** || ** Why? ** || ** How I can help… ** ||
 * Organization || Difference in cultural thought patterns || Outlines, Venn Diagrams, Visual Organizers, Charts, Graphs ||
 * Focus || Misunderstanding of task, possibly due to lack of language or cultural knowledge || Explain the task further and ask the student to explain the task to you in his/her own words ||
 * Plagiarism || Differences in cultural views of plagiarism || Education regarding the rules of plagiarism on campus ||
 * [[image:file:///C:/Users/fox27/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg width="624" height="477"]] Misuse/lack of citations || Possible lack of instruction in home country on how to cite information; possibly never have done a research paper prior || Education regarding the rules of citation ||
 * Now idea where to get information for research paper || Possibly have never done a research paper before; lack of basic research skills || Refer student to the library or his/her professor for assistance ||
 * Punctuation || In some country, periods aren’t used until the end of a paragraph || Education ||
 * Spelling || Every country has a different style || Education ||
 * Formatting || Every country has a different style || Education regarding the particular format requirements for this paper ||
 * Grammar || Interference from first language; lack of proper language instruction || Education regarding particular problem (i.e. verb tenses, plurals, prepositions, sentence structure, etc.) ||

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**The Differences in Characteristics of Good Academic Writing between the U.S. and Other Cultures/Languages**

 * ** Characteristics of Effective Writing in English for an American Audience ** || **Examples of some contrasting characteristics in other cultures/languages** ||
 * Concise language; direct, to the point; written to inform or to persuade || Writing is viewed as a way of engaging the emotions through beautiful language ||
 * Non-repetitive; straight to the point of the essay || Focus on the language’s richness or the ability to repeat ideas in a variety of ways; digression is seen as a way of linking the subject under discussion to other issues to show a wider range of knowledge ||
 * Responsibility on the writer to supply the reader with a concise thesis statement || No direct statement of main idea(s), with readers expected to infer the writer’s main point ||
 * Transitions necessary || Explicit signals are not necessary; the writer show respect for the reader’s intelligence to make inferences ||
 * [[image:file:///C:/Users/fox27/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg width="624" height="477"]] Factual; specific || Information is expected to by highly philosophical ||
 * Modern scholarship/research || Traditional wisdom and authority are used to support arguments ||
 * Start the essay in general terms and move into specific terms || Heavy use of inductive reasoning (movement from the specific to general) ||
 * Subject matter propels essay || Emphasis on traditional wisdom and shared cultural knowledge ||

Adapted from a handout by Dr. Margery Tegey, “The International Student as Academic Writer,” Georgetown University Writing Center Seminar, November 13, 2001.

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**When an ESL Student Needs Grammar Assistance**
The following tips were provided by the English Language Institute:

ü Negotiate a realistic goal together

§ //Question:// Student asks you to proofread the essay and fix everything, but you are not trained to proofread essays

§ //Problem:// What is a common ground you can work from?

§ //Answer:// “We can’t fix all of your errors in just sixty minutes, but I can help you identify major patterns of errors and we can discuss not only how to fix them now, but how to avoid them in the future.”

ü Advice on finding and correcting grammatical errors

§ Go through the essay and circle (not correct) errors.

§  As you identify each mistake, ask students to fix them. If they can’t, talk it out with them. For example, if it is a word form error, ask them to tell you what part of speech they used and help them figure out what part of speech should be used.

§ Give students a handout related to the mistake and/or refer them to websites which provide practice in these areas.

§ Encourage students to proofread their own essays, looking for these types of errors, when they write their next essay. If then, they still need help, they can make an appointment to meet with you.

ü **A final word of advice:** If a student seems to have major language problems, refer him/her to the English Language Institute (836-6540).

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**Working with Learning-Disabled Students**
The following tips are taken from Norwich University’s //College Students with Learning Disabilities Handbook// (Gills, 16-17):

ü Pay close attention to the environment – cut down distractions.

ü Break writing into distinct steps: pre-drafting activities (brainstorming, planning, organizing, freewriting, mapping, clustering); drafting (writing without stopping); revising (checking for organization, coherence and clarity of expression); and editing (mechanical and structural considerations).

ü Keep a log of words often misspelled, and review it often.

ü Use a work processor and spellcheck documents.

ü Read writing out loud when revising and editing.

ü Talk out ideas with someone on a tape recorder before drafting.

ü  Read models and copy them.

ü Try to make an outline from a final draft to check organization and coherence.

ü Do sentence-combining exercises.

ü Try window proofreading, which involves cutting a slot in a 4 X 6 card in the size of one typed line and moving down the paper while reading aloud.

Other sources recommend that tutors:


 * Work with the student in smaller blocks of time, limiting the tutoring session to one hour.
 * Allow a longer time for the student to respond to your questions.
 * Encourage the student to try one new technique during the tutoring session.

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**Working with the Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Students**
The following tips come from “Tutoring,” a tipsheet for teachers of the hard of hearing, written by Richard Orlando.

“Tutoring…is a student-driven interaction in which a tutor is enlisted to explain and clarify academic content and/or instructions to a deaf or hard-of-hearing student. It is assumed that the tutor is not fluent in the use of sign language, the student’s primary mode of communication is signed communication, tutoring interactions do not take place in the classroom…” (Orlando).


 * Characteristics of an Ideal Tutoring Session**

An ideal tutoring session, one in which everyone is satisfied with the outcomes, will have most of these characteristics:


 * 1) The student has identified a specific concern.


 * 1) The student has a basic understanding of supporting concepts.
 * 1) The student has independently attempted to understand the concept.


 * 1) The student has realistic time expectations for tutoring.


 * 1) The tutor and the student communicate well with each other.


 * 1) The tutor has a full understanding of the subject/concept in question.


 * 1) The concept is explained, understood, and can be applied to the satisfaction of both the tutor and student.


 * //Tip #1://** Sit across from, not next to, the student.


 * //Tip #2://** Use as many visuals as possible. Write key words and important points on a note pad and pass it back and forth, even if an interpreter is present.


 * //Tip #3://** When you explain a concept using technical vocabulary, ask the student to explain key words/concepts prior to continuing.


 * //Tip #4://** Ask the student to demonstrate understanding of a key concept through application of the concept or explanation (2001).

The following tips are adapted from, “Teaching Students Who are Hard of Hearing” by Brenda Battat:


 * //Tip #5://** Use Good Communication Techniques

§ Repeat or rephrase questions/comments…before responding.

§ Face the student, not the interpreter, and speak naturally at a moderate pace.

§ Avoid the temptation to speak faster when time is short.

§ Do not speak while writing on the draft or a notepad.

§ Encourage open communication with the student regarding your effectiveness at communication during the session.

§ Write proper names, technical vocabulary, formulas, equations, and foreign terms on a notepad.  § Do not sit with your back to a window where shadows will impede on speechreading (2001).

**Working with an Interpreter**
Kathy Darroch and Liza Marshall suggest the following things to remember when working through an interpreter:

ü It is the interpreter’s job to faithfully transmit the spirit and content of the communicator, allowing the student and [tutor] full access in the…interaction. [Thus], refrain from asking the interpreter to participate (in the session).

ü Keep lines of sight free for visual access to information.

ü Interpreters process information cognitively before interpreting. The…message therefore will follow at a pace generally one or two sentences behind the communicator. Speak naturally…allow for added processing time during…discussions.

ü Avoid talking while the student is focused on written work (2001).